Attribution Theory

In our world, all effects are attributed to some sort of cause. This is as true in educational pursuits as it is in scientific ones, and in education (psychology in general) this is known as Attribution Theory. It is important to understand the causes that our students attribute to their successes and failures, because this can point to their broader motivations.

For example, some students are motivated only by the fact that they attribute their success to their ability to cram before a test. Another student might be scared of failure, but only because he attributes his failures to the inability of the school system to deal with his particular needs (whether valid or not).

We can guide our students by helping them establish a belief in their own abilities, without them relying on their abilities. Basically, students should be guided into knowing that even if they failed, they failed because of some (reasonable) outside force, or due to a lack of effort or time on their part. That way, they'll be more likely to try again in the future.

This is an excellent link to a summary of how attribution theory effects student motivation:
http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy5/edpsy5_attribution.htm

Social and Situated Cognition Theories

As much as we would like to think our learning and beliefs are static - that they do not change based on our social setting or situation - evidence points to the contrary. The theory of Social and Situated Cognition states that our social-cognitive processes change based on context, and when people enter new situations with different goals and perspectives, their learning and understanding change also.

Here is a link to a paper written on the topic:
http://dare.ubvu.vu.nl/bitstream/1871/17296/2/Smith_Advances%20in%20Experimental%20Social%20Psychology_26(3)_2004_u.pdf

So what does that mean for our education?
Students are not perfect vessels that can be filled with information despite context. We must understand that learning can be altered (for better or worse) based on the environment and social climate of the "classroom." If a group of young teenagers can't stop trying to impress one another, they probably aren't absorbing what you'd like them to. By the same token, you can use this altered social process to your advantage by making it impressive to have learned and adapted your material.

Self Efficacy

Belief in oneself and one's skills is a powerful tool, and can be a deadly foe. Self efficacy is a measure of what one imagines one's ability level to be. How capable you are of performing a certain task or type of tasks sometimes isn't as important as how capable you think you are at performing. Building this self efficacy is a goal that many adventure educators strive for, because even if they fail at the same rate as others, those with high self efficacy are less likely to view failures as a setback.

Albert Bandura pioneered this concept, and it has caught on over time, because educators and leaders figured out that it has profound effects on students in the short and long term.

We can use this concept in our teaching by not hurling students at impossible tasks. Start your population out slowly with tasks they are capable of, and increase the level and nature of the challenge from there. Those who are faced with many initial failures will begin to believe failure is a trend, while those who see many successes will continue to expand their self efficacy and believe in their abilities.

Cognitive Dissonance

An adventure trip leader has been educated in the Experiential Learning Cycle, but finds that in the field it is too challenging to implement, so she chooses not to debrief. "It's fine," she thinks, "they'll be alright without it."

A student fervently believes in the human connection to global warming through greenhouse gas emissions, but drives a Toyota Tacoma with a heavy topper everywhere he goes. "I've got NOLS stickers on it! That makes it okay!" He thinks.

Cognitive dissonance comes from an uncomfortable tension when an individual is holding two differing or opposing thoughts at the same time. The human mind has an amazing ability to do this, and it can lead to very confusing behaviors. Dissonance has been compared to the feeling of hunger. We don't like feeling hungry (just as we don't like dissonance), so we do what we can to solve it. Usually, this means forgetting about the difference between the two ideas and pretending nothing is wrong. We can also feel better by adding support to our dissonant actions. The Toyota driver above might consider the global impact of his truck, but justifies it by saying, "At least it's not a Tundra," or, "I need this for my work and have no choice." Justification feels better than facing our inconsistencies.

So how do we fight cognitive dissonance? The best way is something also discussed on my blog - Critical Analysis. We have to be open to changing our minds, rejecting justifications, and realizing what is true and valuable in our lives. Most of us will continue to have cognitive dissonance about one thing or another, but making our lives more consistent helps relieve that ever-present feeling of "hunger."

Constructivism

Constructivism is a fancy term for a simple concept.

Did you learn algebra in school? Most of us did, and you might be able to solve for "x" if I were to give you a simple equation like 4x + 1 = 9. Could you have learned how to solve for x without first knowing about addition, multiplication, and other simple operations? Probably not.

Constructivism is the idea that all new knowledge or information must be built on prior information. Without understanding the basic nature of danger, "risk" would be meaningless. Without the basic understanding of what risks are, the term "adventure" is meaningless. Without understanding the nature of adventure, one cannot hope to be a good adventure educator.

This theory says that as we learn, we develop "constructs," what you might call "building blocks" or "concepts" about a particular topic. Those constructs can be built up, combined, added to, or ignored entirely! As we learn more, develop more, and face new questions, those constructs will be modified and utilized to make strong foundations for our understanding.

So how can we use this in our educational practices?
Learning can't be layered on to students before they are ready for the next layer. If you were a traditional teacher, you might simply test a student until they had mastered a skill before moving on (the standardized testing and grading system in most of the United States operates this way - you aren't allowed to move from Math I to Math II without passing, and you repeat a class that you have failed, continuing the cycle). We aren't traditional teachers, though, are we? One thing we can do is allow the student to solve problems with guidance or as a group. This way, they answer their own questions, make new discoveries, and progress at their own developmental pace. Along the way, an adventure educator might challenge their students to develop strong constructs based on their experiences and on other available evidence. Rushing students along would be like rushing the production of the foundation of your house - something that could eventually lead to disaster, as the foundation might not hold up the weight of a house for very long.

Again, Constructivism is a complex term for a simple idea - that learning is built on prior learning and experiences. Remember the mental "houses" of your students, and you won't ignore the progress of their foundations.

This is another excellent resource for understanding Constructivism:
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html

Issues in Adventure Education: Gender Disparity

In our American culture, we typically associate adventure, risk, and danger with men and masculinity. The foundation of that association is sexism - whether intentional or not. As educators, we must pay close attention to our words, our actions, and how those effect the learning and experiences of all of our participants, regardless of gender.

The fact of the matter is that gender is not the defining factor in many of the issues that we make it out to be. Strength, intelligence, emotional capacity, group interaction, teamwork, and approach to learning are all things which cannot be reasonably separated by gender. It should be understood, then, that making your activities more "girly" or "emotional" is not an effective or appropriate response to having women in your classroom. Paying close attention to the culture within your class is important to ensure that no student feels restricted or limited. Unfortunately, that is often the case, as research has shown us that women-only groups often feel more comfortable talking about issues together. It would be foolish to assume that this is because women are "naturally cliquey" or "better at talking about feelings." Instead, we should be looking at the reason women may feel less comfortable in a typical classroom.

Wilderdom (as usual) has an excellent page on gender issues: http://wilderdom.com/Gender.htm

Issues in Adventure Education: The Economic Power of Outdoor Recreation

The Economic Power of Outdoor Recreation | The White House
Although the above article is not a philosophy/theory specific article, I do wonder what issues occur in the adventure education field when people are creating a emphasis on economic growth in the field. The PR/Press is great, yet we should ask, where are the jobs? While there may be plenty of people who will be willing to take you fishing or backpacking, one must wonder where the long term sustainability for these jobs will come from, besides the fact that many of them pay little over $20,000 a year, if that much. One phrase I’ve kept with me throughout my journey through this field is “There will always be a younger stronger guy willing to carry a heavier pack.” Now what does this say about all these jobs or all these candidates? The creation of adventure education programs in four year institutions is a fairly new development, and in some ways it still seems to be finding its place. Now don’t get me wrong, in comparison to other degrees if feel I have an extensive understanding of my field through these programs. With that being said with many programs you have to wonder if these programs are flooding the field. There are only a handful of positions making more than $60,000 per year in the entire United States. For instance, I believe its fair to say that 90% of those people have at least a master’s degree. To see this in action, attend the AORE conference, which includes most of the best paid college and skills-based adventure program directors - there are only a few hundred of them! So if you are not going to get one of those handful of jobs, is this a career worth going to college for?While there are plenty of other personal reasons to go to college, I guess the final point I want to touch on is that the advertising of this career field is over flooding an already over flooded market limiting the futures of those with desires to pursue such a lifestyle.

What do you think? Is it worth it? Are there enough jobs to go around? Would your time be better spent by getting field work BEFORE getting a degree?

Aims of Adventure Education

At its heart, the aims of a given field are directed by its developers and users. Adventure education may have certain aims of its own - I'll leave that up to you to decide for yourself.

First, what is an aim?
An aim is a direction. Call it a "long-term goal" or a "final product." If I were a space exploration agency like NASA, my aim might be to explore and catalog the known universe. Obviously that is more than a goal or an objective, because it is grand in scope, and aspirational rather than specific. An aim of the liberal school of education might be to produce a well-rounded and broadly educated citizenry so that the world might benefit from all sorts of knowledge bases.

But that sounds an awful lot like an "objective."
Aims and objectives are different concepts. Back to my space agency idea - my objectives might include building a long-distance space craft, performing faster-than-light transportation, visiting Alpha Centauri, or developing a system to keep my astronauts in suspended animation. As you can see, my objectives are specific, but all fall in the direction of my aim (exploring and cataloging the universe). Some objectives of Fort Lewis College's Adventure Education program might include creating students who are competent in the outdoors, forming close relationships with local business and guiding companies, or gaining enough community support to continue operations.

So, I believe that the aim of adventure education is to promote the value of education by retaining risk, so that globally-minded citizens can change the world for the better without being frozen by fear. Other aims of adventure education might include safely bringing people into their stretch zones and back again, developing educators who are capable of generating foundational change in their students, or using semi-controlled risky activities to forward the social development of humanity.

The most important thing to remember here is what do you think?
No philosopher has a monopoly on aims and objectives. Adventure education has its principles in many philosophies and theories, but that doesn't mean the aims are set in stone. Open this topic to debate, and you will surely find many differing opinions, all backed by genuine belief and curiosity.

Outward Bound Process Model

Here is the Outward Bound Process Model, sometimes also known as Walsh and Golins Model. ( you might have to zoom in to read)

http://wilderdom.com/theory/OutwardBoundProcessModel.html

1970s: The Outward Bound Educational Process Model

Walsh and Golins (1976) developed the ‘Outward Bound Educational Process Model (Figure 1), which began with the participant undertaking a series of physical activities and group problem solving tasks. This model has been particularly important in the development of an understanding of the experiential education process, as it was one of the first to list the program elements. Walsh and Golins suggested that the tasks needed to be introduced incrementally and have real consequence not vicarious ramifications. Problem solving tasks should be holistic; their solutions requiring the individual’s mental, emotional and physical resources. A state of ‘adaptive dissonance’ whereby a person has two different and conflicting thoughts is then reflected upon, which leads to transfer of learning to future experiences.

http://www.outward-bound.org/docs/research/OB_ed_process_Martin.pdf

So what does that mean?
Well, the OB Process Model is a way of standardizing and recording how a certain type of educational process works (in this case, the process is the OB one). In simple terms, this model is a way of saying that Outward Bound puts its students into new situations that include problems to be solved, and by solving them they create change within themselves and within their group. That's pretty much it. There are certain deeper implications to the OB Process Model, but you don't need to get into that unless you'll be using the model yourself, or are studying processing and facilitation.

Multiple Intelligences

Multiple Intelligences is a theory primarily promoted and developed by Howard Gardner in the 1980s. The concept is that humans are not dictated by a single level of 'intelligence,' but instead are more or less able in several different areas of learning. Those areas (sometimes debated or altered) are spatial, linguistic, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential.

Spatial learners are able to visualize things within their mind. Concepts and figures are imagined in a virtual world, mentally. Examples of spatial learning would include puzzles, building blocks, mind-webs, and guided meditations.

Linguistic learners understand and absorb language better than others. They are able to learn by reading, writing, listening to stories, or having complex discussions.

Logical-Mathematical learners focus on abstract, logical, and sequentially organized information. They learn through patterns, problem solving, and examination of data and figures.

Bodily-Kinesthetic learners are physically oriented, and learn through the manipulation and use of their bodies. They are best at learning that requires touching, motion, and activity.

Musical learners learn best when information is presented rhythmically, lyrically, or musically. Tones, beats, and the use of voices help them absorb information. Memorization songs, well-spoken lectures, and music are good examples of useful teaching tools.

Interpersonal learners are good at interaction with other people. They learn best through debate, conversation, and team exercises.

Intrapersonal learners are focused on self-reflection and personal enrichment. They learn best through self-examination, solitary research, and personal attention.

Naturalistic learners learn best when interacting with nature and natural elements. They would probably prefer to be outside than in, and natural environments help them focus as opposed to distracting them.

Finally, the existence of Existential learners has been debated. If this is to be included, these learners are best at vast abstraction, and seeing beyond simple facts into the broad concepts of whatever is being taught.

The theory has many practical applications, but is also criticized for its flaws. As an alternative to simple IQ as a method of understanding one's strengths and weaknesses, multiple intelligences is wonderful, as it shows very clearly that no single person learns or adapts the same way as another person. Some students may find that they are strong in the 'musical' area, and that hearing information rhythmically or making music themselves may help retention. However, there is little scientific evidence to support multiple intelligences as anything other than a philosophy or guide. In the Fall 2006 issue of Educational Psychology, Lynn Waterhouse posted a review of multiple intelligences, and concluded that no study had yet shown evidence of its validity (see the Wikipedia page: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences).

That being said, this theory is a great way to break from the liberal school's hold on our definition of intelligence. Knowing that we are not simple organisms, and that we learn in different ways depending on circumstance and subject, can help both educators and learners diversify their awareness and expand on their ability to learn and adapt.

Flow and Optimal Arousal Theories

These two theories are combined because of their close connection. Neither are supported by much empirical evidence, but they are often seen in a practical way throughout many of our adventure pursuits.

What is Philosophy? Part 2

Now that we have overviewed philosophers I'd like to take a quick moment to define a few important concepts and definitions that will be foundational in our discussions.

What is Philosophy?

What is philosophy? Now isn't that a loaded question. According to dictionary.com, philosophy is "the rational investigation of the truths and principles of being, knowledge, or conduct." Philosophers study concepts that form the foundation of our knowledge and understanding. They conceptualize life and its truths in a way similar to a physicist or chemist, who studies the core of our world and its fundamental interactions. They philosophize for many reasons - to learn, to understand, to build strong foundations on which to study more or understand more, or any number of other reasons.

Experiential Learning Theory

Experiential learning forms the basis for a substantial portion of adventure education philosophy. As adventure educators, we believe that having experiences, reflecting on those experiences, and forming new concepts to apply to future experiences is the best way to learn and develop as humans. The theory of experiential learning cannot be defined in a simple manner, as its applications and background are substantial. However, a good summary is found in the "Experiential Learning Cycle," which has many minor variants. Wilderdom.com has an excellent summary of nine (nine!) such cycles, located here: http://wilderdom.com/experiential/elc/ExperientialLearningCycle.htm

Critical Analysis

Critical analysis is a crucial element to understanding not only our own beliefs, but also to forming solid foundations of thinking. As Lee Frazer quotes from John Dewey,

"For any theory or set of practices is dogmatic which is not based upon critical examination of its own underlying principles." (From Experience and Education, 1938, p.22)

Schools of Educational Philosophy

There are five primary schools of educational philosophy. They are Liberal (or Traditional or Classical), Behaviorist, Progressive, Humanistic, and Radical. Each has its place in modern education, and they have pros and cons depending on one's personal philosophy. Here's a quick summary of each:

Welcome

Hi everybody! Welcome to the study guide to Philosophy and Theory of Adventure Education - now isn't that a mouthful! I am creating this blog as part of a class to create a source where other Adventure Education or outdoor students can find a concise source of commonly respected information from our field.  Throughout this blog I will discuss different topics and attach videos and links to expand the background. I don't expect this to be a teaching source, but rather a study guide (hence the name) or hopefully as a place to openly discuss those ideas. Thanks and enjoy!